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1-introduction/related-work/1-haptic-hand.tex
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@@ -9,7 +9,6 @@ It also allows us to act on these objects with the hand, to come into contact wi
This implies that the haptic perception is localized at the points of contact between the hand and the environment, \ie we cannot haptically perceive an object without actively touching it.
These two mechanisms, \emph{action} and \emph{perception}, are therefore closely associated and both are essential to form the haptic experience of interacting with the environment using the hand \cite{lederman2009haptic}.
\subsection{The Haptic Sense}
\label{haptic_sense}
@@ -38,18 +37,18 @@ There are also two types of thermal receptors implanted in the skin, which respo
Finally, free nerve endings (without specialized receptors) provide information about pain \cite{mcglone2007discriminative}.
\begin{tab}{cutaneous_receptors}{Characteristics of the cutaneous mechanoreceptors.}[
Adaptation rate is the speed and duration of the receptor's response to a stimulus. Receptive size is the area of skin detectable by a single receptor. Sensitivities are the stimuli detected by the receptor. Adapted from \textcite{mcglone2007discriminative} and \textcite{johansson2009coding}.
]
\begin{tabularx}{\linewidth}{p{1.7cm} p{2cm} p{2cm} X}
\toprule
\textbf{Receptor} & \textbf{Adaptation Rate} & \textbf{Receptive Size} & \textbf{Sensitivities} \\
\midrule
Meissner & Fast & Small & Discontinuities (\eg edges), medium-frequency vibration (\qtyrange{5}{50}{\Hz}) \\
Merkel & Slow & Small & Pressure, low-frequency vibration (\qtyrange{0}{5}{\Hz}) \\
Pacinian & Fast & Large & High-frequency vibration (\qtyrange{40}{400}{\Hz}) \\
Ruffini & Slow & Large & Skin stretch \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabularx}
Adaptation rate is the speed and duration of the receptor's response to a stimulus. Receptive size is the area of skin detectable by a single receptor. Sensitivities are the stimuli detected by the receptor. Adapted from \textcite{mcglone2007discriminative} and \textcite{johansson2009coding}.
]
\begin{tabularx}{\linewidth}{p{1.7cm} p{2cm} p{2cm} X}
\toprule
\textbf{Receptor} & \textbf{Adaptation Rate} & \textbf{Receptive Size} & \textbf{Sensitivities} \\
\midrule
Meissner & Fast & Small & Discontinuities (\eg edges), medium-frequency vibration (\qtyrange{5}{50}{\Hz}) \\
Merkel & Slow & Small & Pressure, low-frequency vibration (\qtyrange{0}{5}{\Hz}) \\
Pacinian & Fast & Large & High-frequency vibration (\qtyrange{40}{400}{\Hz}) \\
Ruffini & Slow & Large & Skin stretch \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabularx}
\end{tab}
\subsubsection{Kinesthetic Sensitivity}
@@ -67,7 +66,6 @@ By providing sensory feedback in response to the position and movement of our li
This allows us to plan and execute precise movements to touch or grasp a target, even with our eyes closed.
Cutaneous mechanoreceptors are essential for this perception because any movement of the body or contact with the environment necessarily deforms the skin \cite{johansson2009coding}.
\subsection{Hand-Object Interactions}
\label{hand_object_interactions}
@@ -80,17 +78,17 @@ These receptors give the hand its great tactile sensitivity and great dexterity
\textcite{jones2006human} have proposed a sensorimotor continuum of hand functions, from mainly sensory activities to activities with a more important motor component.
As illustrated in the \figref{sensorimotor_continuum}, \Citeauthor{jones2006human} propose to delineate four categories of hand function on this continuum:
\begin{itemize}
\item \emph{Passive touch}, or tactile sensing, is the ability to perceive an object through cutaneous sensations with a static hand contact. The object may be moving, but the hand remains static. It allows for relatively good surface perception, \eg in \textcite{gunther2022smooth}.
\item \emph{Exploration}, or active haptic sensing, is the manual and voluntary exploration of an object with the hand, involving all cutaneous and kinesthetic sensations. It enables a more precise perception than passive touch \cite{lederman2009haptic}.
\item \emph{Prehension} is the action of grasping and holding an object with the hand. It involves fine coordination between hand and finger movements and the haptic sensations produced.
\item \emph{Gestures}, or non-prehensible skilled movements, are motor activities without constant contact with an object. Examples include pointing at a target, typing on a keyboard, accompanying speech with gestures, or signing in sign language, \eg in \textcite{yoon2020evaluating}.
\item \emph{Passive touch}, or tactile sensing, is the ability to perceive an object through cutaneous sensations with a static hand contact. The object may be moving, but the hand remains static. It allows for relatively good surface perception, \eg in \textcite{gunther2022smooth}.
\item \emph{Exploration}, or active haptic sensing, is the manual and voluntary exploration of an object with the hand, involving all cutaneous and kinesthetic sensations. It enables a more precise perception than passive touch \cite{lederman2009haptic}.
\item \emph{Prehension} is the action of grasping and holding an object with the hand. It involves fine coordination between hand and finger movements and the haptic sensations produced.
\item \emph{Gestures}, or non-prehensible skilled movements, are motor activities without constant contact with an object. Examples include pointing at a target, typing on a keyboard, accompanying speech with gestures, or signing in sign language, \eg in \textcite{yoon2020evaluating}.
\end{itemize}
\fig[0.65]{sensorimotor_continuum}{
The sensorimotor continuum of the hand function proposed by and adapted from \textcite{jones2006human}.
The sensorimotor continuum of the hand function proposed by and adapted from \textcite{jones2006human}.
}[
Functions of the hand are classified into four categories based on the relative importance of sensory and motor components.
Icons are from \href{https://thenounproject.com/creator/leremy/}{Gan Khoon Lay} / \href{https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/}{CC BY}.
Functions of the hand are classified into four categories based on the relative importance of sensory and motor components.
Icons are from \href{https://thenounproject.com/creator/leremy/}{Gan Khoon Lay} / \href{https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/}{CC BY}.
]
This classification has been further refined by \textcite{bullock2013handcentric} into 15 categories of possible hand interactions with an object.
@@ -113,13 +111,13 @@ Thus the thumb has 5 DoFs, each of the other four fingers has 4 DoFs and the wri
This complex structure enables the hand to perform a wide range of movements and gestures. However, the way we explore and grasp objects follows simpler patterns, depending on the object being touched and the aim of the interaction.
\begin{subfigs}{hand}{Anatomy and motion of the hand. }[
\item Schema of the hand skeleton. Adapted from \textcite{blausen2014medical}.
\item Kinematic model of the hand with 27 \DoFs \cite{erol2007visionbased}.
]
\subfigsheight{58mm}
\subfig{blausen2014medical_hand}
\subfig{kinematic_hand_model}
\begin{subfigs}{hand}{Anatomy and motion of the hand. }[][
\item Schema of the hand skeleton. Adapted from \textcite{blausen2014medical}.
\item Kinematic model of the hand with 27 \DoFs \cite{erol2007visionbased}.
]
\subfigsheight{58mm}
\subfig{blausen2014medical_hand}
\subfig{kinematic_hand_model}
\end{subfigs}
\subsubsection{Exploratory Procedures}
@@ -158,7 +156,6 @@ This can be explained by the sensitivity of the fingertips (\secref{haptic_sense
\fig{gonzalez2014analysis}{Taxonomy of grasp types of \textcite{gonzalez2014analysis}}[, classified according to their type (power, precision or intermediate) and the shape of the grasped object. Each grasp shows the area of the palm and fingers in contact with the object and the grasp with an example of object.]
\subsection{Haptic Perception of Roughness and Hardness}
\label{object_properties}
@@ -174,7 +171,6 @@ These properties are described and rated\footnotemark using scales opposing two
The most salient and fundamental perceived material properties are the roughness and hardness of the object \cite{hollins1993perceptual,baumgartner2013visual}, which are also the most studied and best understood \cite{bergmanntiest2010tactual}.
\subsubsection{Roughness}
\label{roughness}
@@ -196,17 +192,17 @@ However, the speed of exploration affects the perceived intensity of micro-rough
To establish the relationship between spacing and intensity for macro-roughness, patterned textured surfaces were manufactured: as a linear grating (on one axis) composed of ridges and grooves, \eg in \figref{lawrence2007haptic_1} \cite{lederman1972fingertip,lawrence2007haptic}, or as a surface composed of micro conical elements on two axes, \eg in \figref{klatzky2003feeling_1} \cite{klatzky2003feeling}.
As shown in \figref{lawrence2007haptic_2}, there is a quadratic relationship between the logarithm of the perceived roughness intensity $r$ and the logarithm of the space between the elements $s$ ($a$, $b$ and $c$ are empirical parameters to be estimated) \cite{klatzky2003feeling}:
\begin{equation}{roughness_intensity}
log(r) \sim a \, log(s)^2 + b \, s + c
log(r) \sim a \, log(s)^2 + b \, s + c
\end{equation}
A larger spacing between elements increases the perceived roughness, but reaches a plateau from \qty{\sim 5}{\mm} for the linear grating \cite{lawrence2007haptic}, while the roughness decreases from \qty{\sim 2.5}{\mm} \cite{klatzky2003feeling} for the conical elements.
\begin{subfigs}{lawrence2007hapti}{Estimation of haptic roughness of a linear grating surface by active exploration \cite{lawrence2007haptic}. }[
\item Schema of a linear grating surface, composed of ridges and grooves.
\item Perceived intensity of roughness (vertical axis) of the surface as a function of the size of the grooves (horizontal axis, interval of \qtyrange{0.125}{4.5}{mm}), the size of the ridges (RW, circles and squares) and the mode of exploration (with the finger in white and via a rigid probe held in hand in black).
]
\subfigsheight{56mm}
\subfig{lawrence2007haptic_1}
\subfig{lawrence2007haptic_2}
\begin{subfigs}{lawrence2007hapti}{Estimation of haptic roughness of a linear grating surface by active exploration \cite{lawrence2007haptic}. }[][
\item Schema of a linear grating surface, composed of ridges and grooves.
\item Perceived intensity of roughness (vertical axis) of the surface as a function of the size of the grooves (horizontal axis, interval of \qtyrange{0.125}{4.5}{mm}), the size of the ridges (RW, circles and squares) and the mode of exploration (with the finger in white and via a rigid probe held in hand in black).
]
\subfigsheight{56mm}
\subfig{lawrence2007haptic_1}
\subfig{lawrence2007haptic_2}
\end{subfigs}
It is also possible to perceive the roughness of a surface by \emph{indirect touch}, with a tool held in the hand, for example by writing with a pen on paper \cite{klatzky2003feeling}.
@@ -215,19 +211,19 @@ But this information is sufficient to feel the roughness, which perceived intens
The intensity peak varies with the size of the contact surface of the tool, \eg a small tool allows perceiving finer spaces between the elements than with the finger (\figref{klatzky2003feeling_2}).
However, as the speed of exploration changes the transmitted vibrations, a faster speed shifts the perceived intensity peak slightly to the right, \ie decreasing perceived roughness for fine spacings and increasing it for large spacings \cite{klatzky2003feeling}.
\begin{subfigs}{klatzky2003feeling}{Estimation of haptic roughness of a surface of conical micro-elements by active exploration \cite{klatzky2003feeling}. }[
\item Electron micrograph of conical micro-elements on the surface.
\item Perceived intensity of roughness (vertical axis) of the surface as a function of the average spacing of the elements (horizontal axis, interval of \qtyrange{0.8}{4.5}{mm}) and the mode of exploration (with the finger in black and via a rigid probe held in hand in white).
]
\subfig[.25]{klatzky2003feeling_1}
\subfig[.5]{klatzky2003feeling_2}
\begin{subfigs}{klatzky2003feeling}{Estimation of haptic roughness of a surface of conical micro-elements by active exploration \cite{klatzky2003feeling}. }[][
\item Electron micrograph of conical micro-elements on the surface.
\item Perceived intensity of roughness (vertical axis) of the surface as a function of the average spacing of the elements (horizontal axis, interval of \qtyrange{0.8}{4.5}{mm}) and the mode of exploration (with the finger in black and via a rigid probe held in hand in white).
]
\subfig[.25]{klatzky2003feeling_1}
\subfig[.5]{klatzky2003feeling_2}
\end{subfigs}
Even when the fingertips are deafferented (absence of cutaneous sensations), the perception of roughness is maintained \cite{libouton2012tactile}, thanks to the propagation of vibrations in the finger, hand and wrist, for both pattern and "natural" everyday textures \cite{delhaye2012textureinduced}.
The spectrum of vibrations shifts to higher frequencies as the exploration speed increases, but the brain integrates this change with proprioception to keep the \emph{perception constant} of the texture.
For patterned textures, as illustrated in \figref{delhaye2012textureinduced}, the ratio of the finger speed $v$ to the frequency of the vibration intensity peak $f_p$ is measured most of the time equal to the period $\lambda$ of the spacing of the elements:
\begin{equation}{grating_vibrations}
\lambda \sim \frac{v}{f_p}
\lambda \sim \frac{v}{f_p}
\end{equation}
The vibrations generated by exploring everyday textures are also very specific to each texture and similar between individuals, making them identifiable by vibration alone \cite{manfredi2014natural,greenspon2020effect}.
@@ -239,7 +235,6 @@ The everyday textures are more complex to study because they are composed of mul
In addition, the perceptions of micro and macro roughness overlap and are difficult to distinguish \cite{okamoto2013psychophysical}.
Thus, individuals have a subjective definition of roughness, with some paying more attention to larger elements and others to smaller ones \cite{bergmanntiest2007haptic}, or even including other perceptual properties such as hardness or friction \cite{bergmanntiest2010tactual}.
\subsubsection{Hardness}
\label{hardness}
@@ -255,20 +250,20 @@ Passive touch (without voluntary hand movements) and tapping allow a perception
Two physical properties determine the haptic perception of hardness: its stiffness and elasticity, as shown in \figref{hardness} \cite{bergmanntiest2010tactual}.
The \emph{stiffness} $k$ of an object is the ratio between the applied force $F$ and the resulting \emph{displacement} $D$ of the surface:
\begin{equation}{stiffness}
k = \frac{F}{D}
k = \frac{F}{D}
\end{equation}
The \emph{elasticity} of an object is expressed by its Young's modulus $Y$, which is the ratio between the applied pressure (the force $F$ per unit area $A$) and the resulting deformation $D / l$ (the relative displacement) of the object:
\begin{equation}{young_modulus}
Y = \frac{F / A}{D / l}
Y = \frac{F / A}{D / l}
\end{equation}
\begin{subfigs}{stiffness_young}{Perceived hardness of an object by finger pressure. }[
\item Diagram of an object with a stiffness coefficient $k$ and a length $l$ compressed by a force $F$ on an area $A$ by a distance $D$.
\item Identical perceived hardness intensity between Young's modulus (horizontal axis) and stiffness (vertical axis). The dashed and dotted lines indicate the objects tested, the arrows the correspondences made between these objects, and the grey lines the predictions of the quadratic relationship \cite{bergmanntiest2009cues}.
]
\subfig[.3]{hardness}
\subfig[.45]{bergmanntiest2009cues}
\begin{subfigs}{stiffness_young}{Perceived hardness of an object by finger pressure. }[][
\item Diagram of an object with a stiffness coefficient $k$ and a length $l$ compressed by a force $F$ on an area $A$ by a distance $D$.
\item Identical perceived hardness intensity between Young's modulus (horizontal axis) and stiffness (vertical axis). The dashed and dotted lines indicate the objects tested, the arrows the correspondences made between these objects, and the grey lines the predictions of the quadratic relationship \cite{bergmanntiest2009cues}.
]
\subfig[.3]{hardness}
\subfig[.45]{bergmanntiest2009cues}
\end{subfigs}
\textcite{bergmanntiest2009cues} showed the role of these two physical properties in the perception of hardness.
@@ -284,7 +279,6 @@ In addition, an object with low stiffness but high Young's modulus can be percei
%En pressant du doigt, l'intensité perçue (subjective) de dureté suit avec la raideur une relation selon une loi de puissance avec un exposant de \num{0.8} \cite{harper1964subjective}, \ie quand la raideur double, la dureté perçue augmente de \num{1.7}.
%\textcite{bergmanntiest2009cues} ont ainsi observé une relation quadratique d'égale intensité perçue de dureté, comme illustré sur la \figref{bergmanntiest2009cues}.
%\subsubsection{Friction}
%\label{friction}
%
@@ -333,7 +327,6 @@ In addition, an object with low stiffness but high Young's modulus can be percei
%Le taux de transfert de chaleur, décrit par $\tau$, et l'écart de température $T_s - T_e$, sont les deux indices essentiels pour la perception de la température.
%Dans des conditions de la vie de tous les jours, avec une température de la pièce de \qty{20}{\celsius}, une différence relative du taux de transfert de chaleur de \percent{43} ou un écart de \qty{2}{\celsius} est nécessaire pour percevoir une différence de température \cite{bergmanntiest2009tactile}.
%\subsubsection{Spatial Properties}
%\label{spatial_properties}
@@ -367,7 +360,6 @@ In addition, an object with low stiffness but high Young's modulus can be percei
% \subfig{plaisier2009salient_2}
%\end{subfigs}
\subsection{Conclusion}
\label{haptic_sense_conclusion}