Include only roughness and hardness
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@@ -159,7 +159,7 @@ This can be explained by the sensitivity of the fingertips (\secref{haptic_sense
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\fig{gonzalez2014analysis}{Taxonomy of grasp types of~\textcite{gonzalez2014analysis}}[, classified according to their type (power, precision or intermediate) and the shape of the grasped object. Each grasp shows the area of the palm and fingers in contact with the object and the grasp with an example of object.]
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\subsection{Haptic Perception of Object Properties}
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\subsection{Haptic Perception of Roughness and Hardness}
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\label{object_properties}
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The active exploration of an object with the hand is performed as a sensorimotor loop: The exploratory movements (\secref{exploratory_procedures}) guide the search for and adapt to sensory information (\secref{haptic_sense}), allowing to construct a haptic perception of the object's properties.
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@@ -172,6 +172,8 @@ Perception also depends on many other factors, such as the movements made and th
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These properties are described and rated\footnotemark using scales opposing two adjectives such as \enquote{rough/smooth} or \enquote{hot/cold}~\cite{okamoto2013psychophysical}.
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\footnotetext{All the haptic perception measurements described in this chapter were performed by blindfolded participants, to control for the influence of vision.}
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The most salient and fundamental perceived material properties are the roughness and hardness of the object~\cite{hollins1993perceptual,baumgartner2013visual}, which are also the most studied and best understood~\cite{bergmanntiest2010tactual}.
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\subsubsection{Roughness}
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\label{roughness}
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@@ -283,46 +285,46 @@ In addition, an object with low stiffness but high Young's modulus can be percei
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%\textcite{bergmanntiest2009cues} ont ainsi observé une relation quadratique d'égale intensité perçue de dureté, comme illustré sur la \figref{bergmanntiest2009cues}.
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\subsubsection{Friction}
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\label{friction}
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%\subsubsection{Friction}
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%\label{friction}
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%
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%Friction (or slipperiness) is the perception of \emph{resistance to movement} on a surface~\cite{bergmanntiest2010tactual}.
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%Sandpaper is typically perceived as sticky because it has a strong resistance to sliding on its surface, while glass is perceived as more slippery.
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%This perceptual property is closely related to the perception of roughness~\cite{hollins1993perceptual,baumgartner2013visual}.
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%
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%When running the finger on a surface with a lateral movement (\secref{exploratory_procedures}), the skin-surface contacts generate frictional forces in the opposite direction to the finger movement, giving kinesthetic cues, and also stretch the skin, giving cutaneous cues.
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%As illustrated in \figref{smith1996subjective_1}, a stick-slip phenomenon can also occur, where the finger is intermittently slowed by friction before continuing to move, on both rough and smooth surfaces~\cite{derler2013stick}.
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%The amplitude of the frictional force $F_s$ is proportional to the normal force of the finger $F_n$, \ie the force perpendicular to the surface, according to a coefficient of friction $\mu$:
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%\begin{equation}
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% \label{eq:friction}
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% F_s = \mu \, F_n
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%\end{equation}
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%The perceived intensity of friction is thus roughly related to the friction coefficient $\mu$~\cite{smith1996subjective}.
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%However, it is a complex perception because it is more determined by the micro-scale interactions between the surface and the skin: It depends on many factors such as the normal force applied, the speed of movement, the contact area and the moisture of the skin and the surface~\cite{adams2013finger,messaoud2016relation}.
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%In this sense, the perception of friction is still poorly understood~\cite{okamoto2013psychophysical}.
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%
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%\begin{subfigs}{smith1996subjective}{Perceived intensity of friction of different materials by active exploration with the finger~\cite{smith1996subjective}. }[
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% \item Measurements of normal $F_n$ and tangential $F_t$ forces when exploring two surfaces: one smooth (glass) and one rough (nyloprint). The fluctuations in the tangential force are due to the stick-slip phenomenon. The coefficient of friction $\mu$ can be estimated as the slope of the relationship between the normal and tangential forces.
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% \item Perceived friction intensity (vertical axis) as a function of the estimated friction coefficient $\mu$ of the exploration (horizontal axis) for four materials (shapes and colors).
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% ]
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% \subfigsheight{55mm}
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% \subfig{smith1996subjective_1}
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% \subfig{smith1996subjective_2}
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%\end{subfigs}
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%
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%Yet, it is a fundamental perception for grasping and manipulating objects.
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%The forces of friction make it indeed possible to hold the object firmly in the hand and prevent it from slipping
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%The perception of friction also allows us to automatically and very quickly adjust the force we apply to the object in order to grasp it~\cite{johansson1984roles}.
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%If the finger is anaesthetized, the lack of cutaneous sensation prevents effective adjustment of the gripping force: the forces of the object on the finger are no longer correctly perceived, and the fingers then press harder on the object in compensation, but without achieving good opposition of the fingers~\cite{witney2004cutaneous}.
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Friction (or slipperiness) is the perception of \emph{resistance to movement} on a surface~\cite{bergmanntiest2010tactual}.
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Sandpaper is typically perceived as sticky because it has a strong resistance to sliding on its surface, while glass is perceived as more slippery.
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This perceptual property is closely related to the perception of roughness~\cite{hollins1993perceptual,baumgartner2013visual}.
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When running the finger on a surface with a lateral movement (\secref{exploratory_procedures}), the skin-surface contacts generate frictional forces in the opposite direction to the finger movement, giving kinesthetic cues, and also stretch the skin, giving cutaneous cues.
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As illustrated in \figref{smith1996subjective_1}, a stick-slip phenomenon can also occur, where the finger is intermittently slowed by friction before continuing to move, on both rough and smooth surfaces~\cite{derler2013stick}.
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The amplitude of the frictional force $F_s$ is proportional to the normal force of the finger $F_n$, \ie the force perpendicular to the surface, according to a coefficient of friction $\mu$:
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\begin{equation}
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\label{eq:friction}
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F_s = \mu \, F_n
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\end{equation}
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The perceived intensity of friction is thus roughly related to the friction coefficient $\mu$~\cite{smith1996subjective}.
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However, it is a complex perception because it is more determined by the micro-scale interactions between the surface and the skin: It depends on many factors such as the normal force applied, the speed of movement, the contact area and the moisture of the skin and the surface~\cite{adams2013finger,messaoud2016relation}.
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In this sense, the perception of friction is still poorly understood~\cite{okamoto2013psychophysical}.
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\begin{subfigs}{smith1996subjective}{Perceived intensity of friction of different materials by active exploration with the finger~\cite{smith1996subjective}. }[
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\item Measurements of normal $F_n$ and tangential $F_t$ forces when exploring two surfaces: one smooth (glass) and one rough (nyloprint). The fluctuations in the tangential force are due to the stick-slip phenomenon. The coefficient of friction $\mu$ can be estimated as the slope of the relationship between the normal and tangential forces.
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\item Perceived friction intensity (vertical axis) as a function of the estimated friction coefficient $\mu$ of the exploration (horizontal axis) for four materials (shapes and colors).
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]
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\subfigsheight{55mm}
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\subfig{smith1996subjective_1}
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\subfig{smith1996subjective_2}
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\end{subfigs}
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Yet, it is a fundamental perception for grasping and manipulating objects.
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The forces of friction make it indeed possible to hold the object firmly in the hand and prevent it from slipping
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The perception of friction also allows us to automatically and very quickly adjust the force we apply to the object in order to grasp it~\cite{johansson1984roles}.
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If the finger is anaesthetized, the lack of cutaneous sensation prevents effective adjustment of the gripping force: the forces of the object on the finger are no longer correctly perceived, and the fingers then press harder on the object in compensation, but without achieving good opposition of the fingers~\cite{witney2004cutaneous}.
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\subsubsection{Temperature}
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\label{temperature}
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Temperature (or coldness/warmness) is the perception of the \emph{transfer of heat} between the touched surface and the skin~\cite{bergmanntiest2010tactual}:
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When heat is removed from (added to) the skin, the surface is perceived as cold (hot).
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Metal will be perceived as colder than wood at the same room temperature: This perception is different from the physical temperature of the material and is therefore an important property for distinguishing between materials~\cite{ho2006contribution}.
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This perception depends on the thermal conductivity and heat capacity of the material, the volume of the object, the initial temperature difference and the area of contact between the surface and the skin~\cite{kappers2013haptic}.
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For example, a larger object or a smoother surface, which increases the contact area, causes more heat circulation and a more intense temperature sensation (hot or cold)~\cite{bergmanntiest2008thermosensory}.
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%\subsubsection{Temperature}
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%\label{temperature}
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%
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%Temperature (or coldness/warmness) is the perception of the \emph{transfer of heat} between the touched surface and the skin~\cite{bergmanntiest2010tactual}:
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%When heat is removed from (added to) the skin, the surface is perceived as cold (hot).
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%Metal will be perceived as colder than wood at the same room temperature: This perception is different from the physical temperature of the material and is therefore an important property for distinguishing between materials~\cite{ho2006contribution}.
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%This perception depends on the thermal conductivity and heat capacity of the material, the volume of the object, the initial temperature difference and the area of contact between the surface and the skin~\cite{kappers2013haptic}.
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%For example, a larger object or a smoother surface, which increases the contact area, causes more heat circulation and a more intense temperature sensation (hot or cold)~\cite{bergmanntiest2008thermosensory}.
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%Parce qu'elle est basée sur la circulation de la chaleur, la perception de la température est plus lente que les autres propriétés matérielles et demande un toucher statique (voir \figref{exploratory_procedures}) de plusieurs secondes pour que la température de la peau s'équilibre avec celle de l'objet.
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%La température $T(t)$ du doigt à l'instant $t$ et au contact avec une surface suit une loi décroissante exponentielle, où $T_s$ est la température initiale de la peau, $T_e$ est la température de la surface, $t$ est le temps et $\tau$ est la constante de temps:
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@@ -334,38 +336,38 @@ For example, a larger object or a smoother surface, which increases the contact
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%Dans des conditions de la vie de tous les jours, avec une température de la pièce de \qty{20}{\celsius}, une différence relative du taux de transfert de chaleur de \percent{43} ou un écart de \qty{2}{\celsius} est nécessaire pour percevoir une différence de température~\cite{bergmanntiest2009tactile}.
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\subsubsection{Spatial Properties}
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\label{spatial_properties}
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%\subsubsection{Spatial Properties}
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%\label{spatial_properties}
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Weight, size and shape are haptic spatial properties that are independent of the material properties described above.
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%Weight, size and shape are haptic spatial properties that are independent of the material properties described above.
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Weight (or heaviness/lightness) is the perceived \emph{mass} of the object~\cite{bergmanntiest2010haptic}.
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It is typically estimated by holding the object statically in the palm of the hand to feel the gravitational force (\secref{exploratory_procedures}).
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A relative weight difference of \percent{8} is then required to be perceptible~\cite{brodie1985jiggling}.
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By lifting the object, it is also possible to feel the object's force of inertia, \ie its resistance to velocity.
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This provides an additional perceptual cue to its mass and slightly improves weight discrimination.
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For both gravity and inertia, kinesthetic cues to force are much more important than cutaneous cues to pressure~\cite{bergmanntiest2012investigating}.
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%Weight (or heaviness/lightness) is the perceived \emph{mass} of the object~\cite{bergmanntiest2010haptic}.
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%It is typically estimated by holding the object statically in the palm of the hand to feel the gravitational force (\secref{exploratory_procedures}).
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%A relative weight difference of \percent{8} is then required to be perceptible~\cite{brodie1985jiggling}.
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%By lifting the object, it is also possible to feel the object's force of inertia, \ie its resistance to velocity.
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%This provides an additional perceptual cue to its mass and slightly improves weight discrimination.
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%For both gravity and inertia, kinesthetic cues to force are much more important than cutaneous cues to pressure~\cite{bergmanntiest2012investigating}.
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%Le lien entre le poids physique et l'intensité perçue est variable selon les individus~\cite{kappers2013haptic}.
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Size can be perceived as the object's \emph{length} (in one dimension) or its \emph{volume} (in three dimensions)~\cite{kappers2013haptic}.
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In both cases, and if the object is small enough, a precision grip (\figref{gonzalez2014analysis}) between the thumb and index finger can discriminate between sizes with an accuracy of \qty{1}{\mm}, but with an overestimation of length (power law with exponent \qty{1.3}).
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Alternatively, it is necessary to follow the contours of the object with the fingers to estimate its length (\secref{exploratory_procedures}), but with ten times less accuracy and an underestimation of length (power law with an exponent of \qty{0.9})~\cite{bergmanntiest2011cutaneous}.
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The perception of the volume of an object that is not small is typically done by hand enclosure, but the estimate is strongly influenced by the size, shape and mass of the object, for an identical volume~\cite{kahrimanovic2010haptic}.
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%Size can be perceived as the object's \emph{length} (in one dimension) or its \emph{volume} (in three dimensions)~\cite{kappers2013haptic}.
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%In both cases, and if the object is small enough, a precision grip (\figref{gonzalez2014analysis}) between the thumb and index finger can discriminate between sizes with an accuracy of \qty{1}{\mm}, but with an overestimation of length (power law with exponent \qty{1.3}).
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%Alternatively, it is necessary to follow the contours of the object with the fingers to estimate its length (\secref{exploratory_procedures}), but with ten times less accuracy and an underestimation of length (power law with an exponent of \qty{0.9})~\cite{bergmanntiest2011cutaneous}.
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%The perception of the volume of an object that is not small is typically done by hand enclosure, but the estimate is strongly influenced by the size, shape and mass of the object, for an identical volume~\cite{kahrimanovic2010haptic}.
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The shape of an object can be defined as the perception of its \emph{global geometry}, \ie its shape and contours.
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This is the case, for example, when looking for a key in a pocket.
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The exploration of contours and enclosure are then employed, as for the estimation of length and volume.
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If the object is not known in advance, object identification is rather slow, taking several seconds~\cite{norman2004visual}.
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Therefore, the exploration of other properties is favoured to recognize the object more quickly, in particular marked edges~\cite{klatzky1987there}, \eg a screw among nails (\figref{plaisier2009salient_2}), or certain material properties~\cite{lakatos1999haptic,plaisier2009salient}, \eg a metal object among plastic objects.
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%The shape of an object can be defined as the perception of its \emph{global geometry}, \ie its shape and contours.
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%This is the case, for example, when looking for a key in a pocket.
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%The exploration of contours and enclosure are then employed, as for the estimation of length and volume.
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%If the object is not known in advance, object identification is rather slow, taking several seconds~\cite{norman2004visual}.
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%Therefore, the exploration of other properties is favoured to recognize the object more quickly, in particular marked edges~\cite{klatzky1987there}, \eg a screw among nails (\figref{plaisier2009salient_2}), or certain material properties~\cite{lakatos1999haptic,plaisier2009salient}, \eg a metal object among plastic objects.
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\begin{subfigs}{plaisier2009salient}{Identifcation of a sphere among cubes~\cite{plaisier2009salient}. }[
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\item The shape has a significant effect on the perception of the volume of an object, \eg a sphere is perceived smaller than a cube of the same volume.
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\item The absence of a marked edge on the sphere makes it easy to identify among cubes.
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]
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\subfigsheight{40mm}
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\subfig{plaisier2009salient_1}
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\subfig{plaisier2009salient_2}
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\end{subfigs}
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%\begin{subfigs}{plaisier2009salient}{Identifcation of a sphere among cubes~\cite{plaisier2009salient}. }[
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% \item The shape has a significant effect on the perception of the volume of an object, \eg a sphere is perceived smaller than a cube of the same volume.
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% \item The absence of a marked edge on the sphere makes it easy to identify among cubes.
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% ]
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% \subfigsheight{40mm}
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% \subfig{plaisier2009salient_1}
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% \subfig{plaisier2009salient_2}
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%\end{subfigs}
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\subsection{Conclusion}
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@@ -160,7 +160,7 @@ Several types of vibrotactile actuators are used in haptics, with different trad
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\end{subfigs}
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\subsection{Modifying Object Properties with Tactile Renderings}
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\subsection{Modifying Perceived Haptic Roughness and Hardness}
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\label{tactile_rendering}
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Tactile rendering of haptic properties consists in modelling and reproducing virtual tactile sensations comparable to those perceived when interacting with real objects.
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@@ -213,24 +213,24 @@ A common method vibrotactile rendering of texture is to use a sinusoidal signal
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\cite{park2017compensation}
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\cite{tao2021altering}
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\subsubsection{Friction}
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\label{friction_rendering}
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%\subsubsection{Friction}
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%\label{friction_rendering}
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%
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%\cite{konyo2008alternative}
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%\cite{provancher2009fingerpad}
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%\cite{smith2010roughness}
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%\cite{jeon2011extensions}
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%\cite{salazar2020altering}
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%\cite{yim2021multicontact}
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\cite{konyo2008alternative}
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\cite{provancher2009fingerpad}
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\cite{smith2010roughness}
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\cite{jeon2011extensions}
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\cite{salazar2020altering}
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\cite{yim2021multicontact}
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\subsubsection{Weight}
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\label{weight_rendering}
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\cite{minamizawa2007gravity}
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\cite{minamizawa2008interactive}
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\cite{jeon2011extensions}
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\cite{choi2017grabity}
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\cite{culbertson2017waves}
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%\subsubsection{Weight}
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%\label{weight_rendering}
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%
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%\cite{minamizawa2007gravity}
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%\cite{minamizawa2008interactive}
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%\cite{jeon2011extensions}
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%\cite{choi2017grabity}
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%\cite{culbertson2017waves}
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\subsection{Conclusion}
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